JALGAON

Jalgaon is a district located in the Khandesh region of Maharashtra, sharing its borders with the state of Madhya Pradesh. Its geographic positioning has played a significant role in shaping its linguistic landscape, resulting in a diverse mix of speech forms and influences from surrounding areas. Historically, Jalgaon lay along trade routes connecting cities like Surat, Agra, and Burhanpur. Interestingly, this historical role and exchange, in many ways, has influenced local language use and cultural identity.

Jalgaon is home to multiple speech communities (a group of people who use and understand the same language or dialect), each maintaining its distinct linguistic traditions. While Marathi serves as the predominant language throughout the district, Khandeshi, Ahirani, and Bhilli function as other significant languages of communication. The district's linguistic landscape also includes lesser-known varieties such as Chapparband.

Remarkably, the 2011 Census of India data reveals that several languages are spoken as mother tongues in Jalgaon district. At the time of the Census (2011), Jalgaon district had a total population of approximately 42 lakh (42,29,917).

Of this population, 63.45% reported Marathi as their first language. Ahirani was spoken by 12.12%, followed by Urdu (7.74%), Hindi (6.27%), and Banjari (2.33%). Other languages spoken as mother tongues included Bhili/Bhilodi (1.63%), Pawri (1.47%), Tadavi (1.00%), Sindhi (0.63%), Marwari (0.63%), and Gojri/Gujjari/Gujar (0.52%).

Ahirani is a language spoken by the Ahir (also Aabhir) community, whose historical roots trace back to ancient India. The language is primarily used in the region framed by the Satpuda and Sahyadri mountain ranges in an area called Khandesh. In Jalgaon, according to the 2011 Census, Ahirani was the second most widely spoken language.

Very notably, Ahirani is referenced in significant early texts and inscriptions. Interestingly, Sudhir Deore in Languages of Maharashtra (2017) remarks that the language appears in ancient Indian epics such as the Ramayana and Mahabharata. Furthermore, he mentions that Bharat Muni’s Natyashastra refers to Ahirani as the vibhasha (the spoken language) of the Ahirs.

What is especially noteworthy is that there is also direct epigraphic evidence (writing inscribed on stone) of Ahirani’s historical use. According to Deore (2017), the latter part of a rock inscription dated to 1206 CE, located at the Shribhavani Mandir in Patan (Jalgaon district), is written in Ahirani, making it one of the earliest known written references to the language. This section of the inscription documents the establishment of a school dedicated to the study of astrology. It was carved by Changdeo, the grandson of the renowned mathematician Bhaskaracharya, under the patronage of Sindhan Yadav of Devagiri.

In present-day Maharashtra, Ahirani is widely spoken in four districts, with Jalgaon being one of them. Interestingly, while it is spoken across a wide area of northern Maharashtra, its form is far from uniform. It exists in multiple regionally and socially differentiated varieties, with Deore (2017) mentioning that at least 21 distinct forms are recorded.

Variation occurs not only across geography but also within subcastes and occupational groups. Differences in how people speak Ahirani may include changes in sounds, sentence structures, or the use of specific words. It is noted that the version spoken in Jalgaon is commonly referred to as Khandeshi.

Ahirani draws influence from both Marathi and Gujarati due to its proximity to both language-speaking communities. Many words appear to be shared across these languages, either through inheritance or common roots; others are borrowed. Some commonly used Gujarati-origin words in Ahirani include:

However, Ahirani also includes several word forms and sound patterns that distinguish it from both Marathi and Gujarati. One clear example is the Ahirani word for “is”, which is se. This differs from ahe in Marathi and che in Gujarati. The use of se may show how Ahirani either simplifies or blends elements from both languages, or it may represent an independently developed form unique to the region.

There are also pronunciation differences. In certain varieties of Ahirani, particularly in Jalgaon, speakers often pronounce the sound “ya” where standard Marathi would use “la”. This shift is a small but consistent example of how phonology (the sound system of a language) can vary.  

The pronoun system in Ahirani will seem familiar to Marathi speakers, as it uses forms like मी (mī), आमी (āmī), तू (tū), and तुम्ही (tumhī). However, it also includes some distinctive forms, such as the forms आपू (āpū) and आपुन (āpūn).

Ahirani speakers use a mix of familiar and unique words for family members. While some sound like those in Marathi, others are quite different.

The words घैडा (ghaiḍā) and घैडी (ghaiḍī) are not found in Marathi and suggest a deeply localised naming system.

As mentioned above, like many languages that exist in a contact zone (where speakers of different languages live nearby), Ahirani includes words from both Marathi and Gujarati, especially when it comes to basic concepts like seasons.

Speakers may switch between these depending on region or familiarity. This is a good example of borrowing (taking a word from one language and using it in another), which happens frequently in areas where communities have traded, interacted, or coexisted for generations.

Ahirani also has many words that are distinct in both form and meaning. Some sound expressive or playful, while others reflect the local landscape, daily life, or emotional states.

The word हाऊ (hāū), for instance, is used for agreement but is phonetically different from Marathi हो (ho) or Gujarati હા (hā). It carries its own rhythm and emphasis in Ahirani. भांगा (bhanga) is often used expressively in conversation, adding emotion or tone to complaints or teasing.

Idioms and Onomatopoeia (Sound-Based Words). Very interestingly, Ahirani speakers often use phrases and idioms that rely on sensory imagery (taste, smell, light) and onomatopoeia (words that imitate sounds).

The word फटफटी (phaṭaphaṭī) is an example of onomatopoeia; it imitates a quick, sharp, flashing or popping sound. It is used here to describe intense sunlight, as if the sunlight itself is making noise, showing how Ahirani often uses sound-based language to describe experience.

The phrase चवना ना धवना (literally “neither taste nor smell”) expresses dislike or disinterest in something. Like many idioms, it is grounded in everyday physical experiences and relies on metaphor to communicate judgment.

Khandeshi Leva, also known as Leva Patildar, is a spoken variety associated with the Leva community in northern Maharashtra. Though the variety originated within the Leva group, it has since spread beyond caste boundaries and is now spoken by many outside the community as well, particularly in the Khandesh and, interestingly, the Varhad region.

Kailash Savarkar, in the volume Languages of Maharashtra (2017), writes, the Leva community migrated from the Kheva and Bharuch regions of Gujarat between the 11th and 15th centuries. During this migration, they settled in regions that now form part of eastern Khandesh and western Vidarbha (also called Varhad). He, remarkably, notes that one of the central hubs where this variety is spoken is in Muktainagar, located in Jalgaon district.

The variety is particularly distinctive. Although the Leva community traces its ancestral roots to Gujarat, Savarkar (2017) notes that the spoken form of Leva in Khandesh bears little resemblance to Gujarati today. Instead, it shows a stronger influence from Varhadi, a variety spoken in the Vidarbha region. This shift, he explains, is likely due to the migration route taken by the Leva community, which bypassed western regions such as Surat and Nandurbar, where Ahirani is more widely spoken. As a result, Ahirani has had minimal influence on the Leva speech found in Khandesh.

Like any other variety, Khandeshi Leva has its own distinct words, where some may seem familiar to speakers of other languages and some are very unique. 

Some of these forms, like फुल्दा (phuldā), differ notably in shape from their Marathi equivalents (e.g., pudcha for “next”) and suggest internal developments or retention from older forms. Words like बरामाथा (barāmāthā) are used to signal agreement or appreciation and reflect a distinct expressive style in casual conversation.

Khandeshi Leva shows clear variation in seasonal terminology, including some words that appear to be modifications of Gujarati forms, and others that are more regionally specific.

The word उन्डाया stands out as a variation from both Marathi उन्हाळा (unhāḷā) and Gujarati ઉનાળો (unāḷo), showing how the term has evolved locally. Similarly, पावसाया, meaning “rainy season,” is notable for its word structure. It builds on the root पावस (rain) and adds the regional suffix -ाया (-āyā), giving the word a distinctive length and rhythmic quality that reflects local speech patterns.

Chapparband is a language variety spoken by the Chapparband community. The Chapparband people are noted to be found in various locations across Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka. In Maharashtra, it is noted that many from this community reside in Jalgaon.

The Chapparband language variety is distinctive for its unconventional structure. According to Sucheta Sheta (2017), speakers from the community “speak in the reverse order by mixing many languages,” such as Telugu, Kannada, Marathi, Hindi, and Urdu. Some common words spoken in the variety include:

Bhilli, also known as Bhillori or Dehwali, is a language variety spoken by the Bhil community, who are regarded to be among the oldest living communities inhabiting India. The Bhils are spread across several states in western India, and their language reflects this geographic and cultural diversity.

Pushpa Gavit, in the volume Languages of Maharashtra (2017) notably, mentions that the history of Bhilli shows that “it [likely] evolved from Shauraseni Prakrit Prakrit Abrahamsa.” (an old language family) Over time, it has developed into a cluster of related varieties, each shaped by the sub-group of Bhils who speak it and the languages spoken in nearby regions. As a result, Bhilli today shows influences from Khandeshi, Marathi, Gujarati, and Rajasthani.

Bhilli is marked by several distinct phonological (sound) features that set it apart from other regional languages:

• It does not include the vowel ए (e) or the consonants छ (chha), ळ (ḷa), and ष (ṣa).
  
• The cluster क्ष (kṣa) and the consonants ल (la) and न (na) are often replaced by ख (kha).
  
• The sound ह (ha) is frequently used in place of स (sa), श (sha), ष (ṣa), and ळ (ḷa).
  
• च (cha) often replaces झ (jha). So, for instance, the word झाड (jhaad) becomes चाड (chaad) in Bhilli.
  

These kinds of substitutions contribute to Bhilli’s unique sound pattern, one that often feels very different from others to outside ears.

Bhilli uses a pronoun system that includes forms not seen in Marathi, Hindi, or Gujarati, or might slightly vary from them when it comes to sound and the way they are spelt. These reflect both collective identity and grammatical uniqueness.

A common feature that can be seen in many Bhilli words is the use of the “-yo” suffix (word endings) in verbs, especially in past or completed actions. This gives the verbs a distinct rhythmic feel.

This “yo” ending is also used in many day names, giving Bhilli a recognisable and patterned structure in how it marks the calendar.

Reduplication (repeating part or all of a word) is a common feature in Bhilli. In some cases, this repetition is semantic (it adds or changes meaning), and in others, it is rhythmic or emphatic (used for effect or sound).

These constructions often rhyme or play with sounds, giving Bhilli a lively and oral quality, especially in conversation and storytelling.

Like many other languages, Bhilli includes expressive proverbs and idioms that reflect everyday life and the values of the community.

These idioms carry practical wisdom and often use physical imagery (like food or walking) to reflect deeper truths about behaviour and responsibility.

Because the Bhil community reside across multiple states, the Bhilli language has naturally absorbed borrowed words from neighbouring languages, most notably Gujarati, Marathi, and at times, Rajasthani. These borrowed forms often appear in daily vocabulary and reflect the linguistic environments in which Bhilli is spoken.

For example, the word for “two” in Bhilli is Ben, which closely resembles be in Gujarati. Similarly, the word हकाल (hakāl), meaning “morning,” is likely a regional variation of the Marathi word सकाळ (sakāl).