RAIGAD

Raigad, located in the coastal Konkan region of Maharashtra, is known for its rich history, scenic landscapes, and cultural diversity. Formerly called Kolaba district, it was renamed after the historic Raigad Fort, the first capital of the Maratha Empire. The district’s linguistic landscape is shaped by communities speaking Aagari, Katkari, Thakaree, and Naw Ling, reflecting deep cultural roots and traditions. Influenced by neighbouring districts like Thane, Ratnagiri, Mumbai, and Pune, Raigad’s position as a hub for trade, transport, and migration has brought together people from various backgrounds, each contributing their own language and heritage.

There are many languages that are spoken as the mother tongue of the various speech communities of the district. According to the 2011 Census, of a total population of 26,34,200, Marathi (80.05%) was spoken as the dominantly spoken first language in the district, while Hindi (7.09%), Urdu (5.86%), and Gujarati (0.90%) are also spoken by the residents.

Additionally, languages such as Kannada (0.79%), Malayalam (0.73%), Marwari (0.57%), Bengali (0.52%), Bhojpuri (0.51%), Telugu (0.45%), Punjabi (0.34%), and Tamil (0.33%) are also spoken. Other languages such as Banjari (0.32%), Kokna/Kokni/Kukna (0.26%), and Odia (0.23%) are also spoken in the district.

Beside mainstream languages, some unique languages and their variations are found within Raigad, which are spoken among various indigenous communities.

Aagri, also spelled Agri, is a language variety spoken by the Aagri community of Maharashtra. The term Aagar in Marathi refers to the coastal land between the sea and the plains, which is traditionally used for cultivating crops such as rice, fruits, and vegetables, as well as producing salt and fishing. The people engaged in these activities are known as Aagaris. Within the Aagri community, there are two major social groups: the Kunbis, who were originally agriculturalists and cultivators, and the Balutedars, who comprised twelve occupational classes.

The Aagri community has a distinct linguistic heritage with deep historical roots. According to Shankar Sakharam Deshmukh (2017), Aagri is a variant of Prakrit and may have been spoken when Prakrit was the dominant language of communication. Today, Aagri is spoken across the western coast of Maharashtra, from Palghar to Mumbai, Navi Mumbai, and southern Raigad, as well as in parts of Nashik and Dhule districts. However, Deshmukh notes that Aagri remains closest to its “original form” in Alibag, while in Nashik and Palghar, it has blended with Koli and Wadavali, respectively.

Aagri shares many similarities with Marathi, but it also has notable variations in pronunciation and vocabulary. One interesting distinction, as noted by Deshmukh, is the way respect or seniority is indicated. In Aagri, the suffix ‘-sa’ is added to certain words when referring to an elderly or respected person. For example, ‘aai’ (mother) becomes ‘aais’, and ‘dadu’ (grandfather) becomes ‘dadus.’

Other than that, Aagari has a unique sound pattern (phonology). Unlike Marathi, where speakers are required to twist and roll their tongues to pronounce letters such as ‘ळ’ (ɭə), ‘ण’ (ɳə), ‘ड’ (ɖə), and ‘छ’ (tʃhə), Aagaris have simplified them as ‘ल’ (lə), ‘न’ (nə), ‘र’ (rə), and ‘स’ (sə) respectively for themselves. The table below highlights these differences:

Aagri does not have a distinct neutral gender. Instead, neutral words are treated as masculine. The table below shows examples of this distinction:

Aagri is often regarded by its speakers as a dialect/language in decline. Deshmukh notes that written records of Aagri only began appearing after the 1960s. Before that, like many language varieties in India, it was preserved primarily through oral tradition. However, this reliance on spoken transmission, in many ways, has made the language variety vulnerable, leading to its gradual decline in recent years. In response, local initiatives from Raigad have emerged to document and promote Aagri. One such effort is the Aagari Granthalay Chalval, which launched the magazine Bə: (Aagari Boli Kavyasangraha). This publication seeks to preserve the language and raise awareness of its cultural significance.

Katkari is a language variety spoken by the Katkari community. The term Katkari is derived from the community’s traditional occupation of extracting sap from the khair (Acacia Katechu) trees; they are also known as Kathodis, Katwaris, and Kathodiyas, and have spread across Maharashtra as well as some parts of Gujarat and Karnataka.

The Katkari community is classified under the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTG). In Maharashtra, they are scattered in Raigad, especially the interiors of Alibag, Pen, Panvel, Karjat, Roha, Maangad, and Sudhagadh talukas. The Katkari language is widely spoken in these regions of the district, alongside other regions across Thane, Ratnagiri, and Nashik districts. They are bilingual, speaking Katkari amongst themselves and Marathi with others, and a few of them speak Hindi as well.

Katkari has borrowed words from Prakrit, Sanskrit, Hindi, Gujarati, and Marathi, with notable similarities to Sanskrit, Hindi, and Gujarati. The table below lists examples of Katkari words influenced by other Indian languages.

Additionally, the suffix /ˈmɑː/ is used at the end of a word in Katkari to indicate an adverb of place. (માં) In Gujarati means ‘in’; this highlights its influence on the Katkari language:

Naw Ling, also known as Nau Ling, is a unique language variety spoken by a small population in the village of Korlai, located in the Murud taluka of Raigad. The term Naw Ling means ‘our language’ (Portuguese: nosso lingua) and is used locally to refer to the language. Linguists, however, often identify it as Korlai Creole.

Korlai is a linguistically diverse village located on the Konkan coast of India. The population consists of Roman Catholics, Hindus, and Muslims, with the Roman Catholic community being the primary speakers of Naw Ling. Currently, it is noted that about 250 families still speak this language variety, with most speakers being from older generations who use it in their daily lives. Many of these families have Portuguese ancestry, which connects directly to how this language formed.

The story of Naw Ling begins in 1498 when Portuguese explorers and colonizers arrived in India. They established settlements in several places along the western coast (places like Goa, Diu, Daman, and various spots along the Konkan coast), including Korlai. When the Portuguese settlers and the local Marathi-speaking people needed to communicate with each other, they faced a challenge since they didn’t share a common language.

To overcome this communication barrier, a “pidgin” language developed. A pidgin is a simplified form of communication that combines elements from different languages to allow people who don’t share a language to interact. In this case, a simplified version emerged that used Portuguese vocabulary but modified the grammar and structure to make it easier for both groups to understand.

Initially, this Portuguese-based pidgin was just a practical tool for trade, governance, and basic interaction: not anyone’s native language. However, something important happened over time: children growing up in the Korlai community began to learn this pidgin as their first language. When a pidgin becomes the native language of a community, linguists call this process “creolization,” and the resulting language is called a “creole”. This is exactly what happened with Naw Ling, and for this, Ashok Kelkar (2017) describes Naw Ling as a Portuguese Pidgin that later underwent creolization.

Through this creolization process, Naw Ling developed into a full-fledged language with its own consistent grammar and expanded vocabulary. While Portuguese remained the main vocabulary source (what linguists call its "lexical foundation"), Naw Ling also incorporated words and grammatical features from other languages in the region: Marathi, Bengali, Arabic, Sanskrit, English, Spanish, Tulu, Aagari, and Konkani. This mix of influences makes Naw Ling a true linguistic blend that reflects the diverse history of cultural contact in the region.

An interesting aspect of Naw Ling’s development is that despite the strong Portuguese influence in areas like religion, education, and government, Portuguese never completely replaced Marathi in everyday conversations. Instead, Naw Ling emerged as a distinct language with unique characteristics, maintaining Portuguese vocabulary while incorporating structures and features from the surrounding local languages.

The hybrid nature of Naw Ling can be observed in specific examples of how it combines different language elements. This hybrid nature of Naw Ling can be clearly seen in specific examples of how the language combines elements from different linguistic sources. As researcher Neha Desai explains, “Korlai Creole uses double words, which is a common practice in Marathi but does not exist in Portuguese.” For instance, the Marathi phrase “jevan-bivan” (जेवण-बिवण), which translates to “food and all” in English, becomes "kume-bime" (कुमे-बिमे) in Naw Ling. This transformation demonstrates how Naw Ling adopted the reduplicative pattern from Marathi (repeating a word with a changed initial consonant to indicate “and related things”) but applied it to Portuguese-derived vocabulary.

Desai further notes that “Korlai Creole's stress on different consonants while speaking is also similar to Marathi.” This observation highlights how the phonological system of Naw Ling, despite its Portuguese lexical base, has been significantly influenced by Marathi pronunciation patterns.

The vocabulary of Naw Ling shows clear evidence of its Portuguese origins, though often with modifications in pronunciation or meaning. Common expressions and words reveal this Portuguese foundation:

While many names and allied words are borrowed from Portuguese, Desai points out that there is "remarkable use of common names like patil (village headman) and gavali (milkman), which are of course Marathi." This selective borrowing and adaptation of Portuguese vocabulary to fit local pronunciation patterns and grammatical structures is a key feature of Naw Ling. Linguists refer to this type of borrowing as a characteristic of creole languages, where lexical items from one language (in this case, Portuguese) are incorporated into a grammatical framework influenced by local languages (primarily Marathi). The use of Marathi terms for culturally significant roles within the community further illustrates how Naw Ling evolved to meet the specific communication needs of its speakers.

Thakaree or Thakari is a language variety spoken by the Thakari community across Maharashtra’s Konkan and Sahyadri regions. In areas where the Thakari community is a minority, the language has been influenced by the dominant regional language, but it has still managed to retain its ethnic identity. Today, it primarily exists as an oral language among its speakers.

Govind Gare (2002) notes that Thakari shares a close phonetic resemblance to Marathi. One of its defining features is its treatment of aspirated sounds: consonants that are pronounced with a small burst of air.

In many Indian languages, including Marathi, aspirated consonants like भ (bhə), थ (θə), ध (ðhə), फ (phə), and ह (hə) have a distinct breathy pronunciation. To understand aspiration, one can compare the English words “pin” (which has a puff of air) and “spin” (which does not). Marathi speakers clearly articulate this breathy quality, but in Thakari, this aspiration is generally omitted, making its pronunciation noticeably different from Marathi. The table below illustrates this difference by comparing some Thakari words with their Marathi counterparts:

Language exists in both spoken and written forms, each playing an equally significant role in communication and cultural preservation. Over time, written language has evolved alongside spoken language, serving as a historical record that offers valuable insights into past civilizations. Older scripts often stand as markers of history, preserving events and knowledge that might otherwise be lost. As noted in Languages of Maharashtra (2017), “the invention of linguistic scripts is one of the most important developments in human civilization. These scripts have helped humanity establish, develop, and refine culture while facilitating the compilation and continuous expansion of knowledge.”

One of the significant linguistic traditions in Maharashtra is Marathi. The origins of Marathi, as many scholars believe, began with its descent from Maharashtri Prakrit. Over centuries, the language evolved through cultural and historical shifts, and written records have played a crucial role in documenting its history and transformation. Among these, an important inscription providing early evidence of written Marathi is found in Alibag, the coastal town of Raigad district.

Dating back to the year 934 of the Saka Samvat, the Aakshicha Shilalekha from the Silahara Dynasty is regarded as one of the earliest known Marathi inscriptions. The inscription has, in many ways, provided valuable insights into the early written history of Marathi and served as an important artifact in understanding the language’s evolution.